Rhetorical Analysis Essay – “Farm Girl”

Is today’s society getting too lax with their children? Why are parents not giving their children chores? What are kids lacking by not being held accountable? What happens when children do not have responsibilities at a younger age? My rhetorical analysis is focused on the short memoir â€Å"Farm Girl† from Jessica Hemauer who vividly paints you as the reader a picture of what it was like growing up on the farm and the effect it had on her life. This piece is one for the masses.The way Hemauer’s memory of growing up on the farm is written could be for a wide range of people to comprehend. She more than likely wrote this memoir for an audience that had gone through trying times or at the time are currently going through times that are getting them down to see that those times do not always have to be a bad thing; it can be a good thing as well. With it being titled â€Å"Farm Girl†, being so easy to follow and an interesting piece to read Hemauer attracted far more than she intended.It could be read by anyone that is interested about what it is like growing up on a farm or what chores may do for their child and many more as well. In the audience’s face right from the begging with intense details, Hemauer has the attention of the reader, because like myself, most individuals in today’s world couldn’t even fathom wanting to get up nor waking their ten year old child up at 5 A. M. Her use of emotional details in the explanation of how hard it is to get up and how even if she is to argue with her father it won’t get her anywhere makes the reader feel sorry for her.Though it is common place for her siblings and herself they don’t enjoy doing it as described by Jessica â€Å"As we dress, not a single word is spoken because we all feel the same way, â€Å"I hate this! †Ã¢â‚¬ (Hemauer, 2011, p. 113). Without this explanation from her, most people could logically gather that a group of children would never be enthusiastic about waking early to do work on a farm nor any work at all for that matter.Hemauer then goes on to describe their duties on the farm before going to school, how she feels at school when she has nothing to talk about at lunch and how she yearns to be involved in sports and clubs at school â€Å"not being able to participate in school activities like my friends makes me feel left out and depressed† (Hemauer, 2011, p. 115). Appealing to the reader ethically Hemauer expresses what a large portion of kids in school want to do and be a part of cause they get to spend more time with friends and be part of something bigger than themselves.Finally, Hemauer is allowed to participate in basketball but must still complete her chores which she is willing to comply with â€Å"In eighth grade I really want to play basketball, and after begging and pleading with my parents, they finally say I can join the team as long as I continue to help with chores in the morning before school and after practice† (Hemauer, 2011, p. 115). Though it is tough and causes her to fall asleep in classes sometimes, she manages to do both. Thankfully, only for a short time, then her father decides to hire help due to the farm growing so large and realizing how much his children have given up over the years.Though at the time it is unknown to her how the experience had affected her life, later she reflects on the adult she became because of it â€Å"Each day of my life there are times when I reflect back to working on the farm† (Hemauer, 2011, p. 117). How Hemauer conveys her memoir and looks back on her childhood, shows us how valuable chores can be to a child despite how much they dislike doing them. A large percent of today’s youth lacks the drive or ambition to push their selves because they unlike Hemauer have not had the responsibilities of such magnitude nor any bestowed upon them. In earlier generations, children and adolescents were given meaningful opportunities to be responsible by contributing not only to their households but also to their larger communities,† said Markella Rutherford, assistant professor of sociology at Wellesley College in Massachusetts and author of the new study, Children's Autonomy and Responsibility: An Analysis of Child Rearing Advice (Lack of household chores making children less responsible, claims survey, 2009). Chores used to be the social norm and without them a child misses out on learning valuable life skills. Chores allow children an early and sustained opportunity to experience responsibility. Independence and self-sufficiency in life are tied, ultimately, to mastery of two types of responsibility: personal responsibility and social responsibility† (Rowland, 2000, Brown University Child & Adolescent Behavior Letter, 16(6), 1). Though it can said many times, different ways that chores can help your child it is also said that you should never ask your child to do somethin g hat you yourself wouldn’t do and they should be used by busy parents to spend more quality time with their child. Essentially helping both the child grow from the responsibilities and allowing the parent to spend more time with the child. References Jessica Hemauer (2011) Farm Girl. In Roen, D, Glau, and Maid,B (Eds) The McGraw-Hill Guide Writing for college, Writing for life. (Pg. 113-117) Boston, MH: Mcgraw Hill P. Barrett, R. (2000). Assigned chores help teach social, personal responsibility. Brown University Child & Adolescent Behavior Letter, 16(6), 1.

Family Management Essay

1. What information in the documentary most surprised you? The thing that most surprised me was the amount of credit cards that a household. I am currently stressed out by having one credit card, I could not even imagine multiplying that stress by 8. I understand that adults with families need credit cards to help buy necessities for their families, but I think that if you are going to take on the responsibilities of owning a credit card, you should make sure you are able to pay more then just the minimum amount. That is another thing that surprised me, the fact that 35 million people only pay the minimum amount due is really shocking because people should be well aware by now how much money they are actually loosing by doing that. 2. Do you think the government should have a role in regulating both who can get credit cards and what interest and fees consumers should pay? If so, who should be the regulators? Who would benefit from such regulation? Who would lose? Explain. I don’t think the government should have a role in regulating who can get a credit card or the interest rate or fees. When people sign up for a credit card, they are well aware of the responsibility that they are taking on. Everyone knows their limit and how much interest they are charged, so if you cant afford to pay something off on time you should not buy it. I don’t think people should blame the banks if they are being charged interest on their purchases; it is their responsibility to be able to keep track of their income and their spending. Even though the bank is making money off of people who do not pay their bills on time, they are the ones lending money to people and they need to make some profit to, like every other business out there. 3. How, according to the four â€Å"normal consumers† in the documentary, does owning a credit card or credit cards affect purchasing decisions? Owning a credit card or multiple credit cards give the illusion of having more money then you actually do. The credit card makes people think that paying it later isn’t a big deal, when actually it buries people in huge sums of debt. Buying something for $500 and only making minimum payments for it can actually end up being double the price (depending on your interest rate). I was brought up thinking that credit cards are for emergencies and emergencies only, but now that I have one I find myself tempted to by things that are not even close to a necessity, and because of this piece of plastic, I also find that I convince myself not to worry and that I will pay it off later. It affects the purchasing decision by giving the illusion of money that most people don’t have, people have a hard time distinguishing the difference of their wants and their needs. Since there is an option to do a minimum payment, the majority of people are taking that route. 4. Who loses and gains the most from credit card companies’ policies? The people who gain from credit card companies are the ‘dead beats’, also known as the people who pay off their entire credit card bill at the end of the month. The reason that they are the gainers is because they are the ones who never have to pay interest, therefore the credit card companies are not making any money off of them and are basically just lending money to these people. The people that pay of their entire bill at the end of the month not only don’t have to pay interest, but they also gain benefits and good credit rates, depending on what that bank offers. The people that lose from credit cards are the people that only make the minimum payments. The downfall with only paying the minimum payments is that they are gaining interest of the balance spent, so they are constantly loosing money. They may think that they are saving money because they are not spending a lot on payments, but in the long run they are paying double the amount. 5. Has the documentary influenced how you might use credit cards in the future? Explain† (Frontline, 2008). Definitely, I’ve always thought I had a good concept on the whole credit card situation, but looking at the video has made me realize how much money I am actually loosing. I’ve always paid more then the minimum payment but still, I would much rather be one of the â€Å"dead beats†. Being in school makes that next to impossible though since I cannot work as much as I’d like to. This video makes me more conscious of the purchases that I make and it also makes me want to pay off my credit card off immediately! Being a student has put me into a lot of debt, I hope that once I have a career in place I will be able to pay off all of my debts.

Generation Me Essay

In Twenges’ book she uses purpose in several ways. One of her main purposes is to describe how different generations have completely different views and moral standards. Twenge uses purpose to try and persuade the readers to believe that she has done the proper research for her book, and want the reader to feel like they can trust that what she is saying is the truth. In this book she doesn’t believe that there it is a problem between the generations just simply that there are distinct differences, and she tries to help the reader to discover why these differences occurred. In this book Twenge is really good at giving the audience background knowledge about herself and about the research that she did for the book. If you are familiar with the audience that you are writing to it is easier to persuade them, because you know there interests. I think that Twenge did a good job assessing her audience by asking herself questions like, who is going to read what I am going to discuss, what are their backgrounds, how much do the readers know about the topic I am writing about, and how much background information should I provide to my audience. I feel that when I read this book I can relate and easily understand what she is discussing. She is writing to a younger audience and not to Biochemists. I like the form of genre that Twenge uses in Generation Me. She breaks each chapter in to sub categories to put emphasis on specific topics which allow the reader to see what she thinks is important information. In this book she uses simple language with strong interests to get her point across. Structure is very important to the reader and the writer. Different types of magazines and novels have specific formats and structures of how they should be written. The style of writing is starting to change slowly over time just like fashion changes, but it will always be important to consider your audience when formatting the genre of your book.

Cultural differences in nonverbal communication Research Paper

Cultural differences in nonverbal communication - Research Paper Example The different ways of expressing nonverbal communication become pronounced especially in a multicultural context. Different cultures have different ways of expressing themselves nonverbally. However, it is worth noting that there are nonverbal communication ways which are similar across the board. One unique feature about nonverbal communication is that forms of expression used in a culture to express a particular message may not express the same message if used in another culture. Nonverbal communication forms can therefore be said to be the same across the board, but the ways they are used differs a great deal and hence the messages they communicate differ a great deal depending on how and where they are used. Because of these fundamental differences across the board, it therefore becomes possible for subjects to communicate different messages when using nonverbal communication forms in a multicultural context without their knowledge. This leads to a breakdown of communication and emergence of conflicts. This is the subject of this research paper. The paper will make a detailed discussion of cultural differences in nonverbal communication. NONVERBAL COMMUNICATION A clear understanding of nonverbal communication is essential for a proper discussion of the objective of this paper. According to Martin and Friedman, nonverbal communication is a way of passing messages or/and emotions without using words. Ways in which verbal communication is expressed include â€Å"facial expression, gestures, gaze, touch and vocal cues† (Martin and Friedman 3). Davis describes nonverbal communication with more features and includes actions such as â€Å"rolling your eyes, how you look at someone, your posture, whether you move your hands, how close you stand, the tone of your voice and the speed at which you speak† (233). In the views of Prinsen and Punyanunt-Carter, nonverbal communication also includes touching and eye contact. Basically, it can be argued that no nverbal communication makes use of body organs to communicate. The manner in which the body organs are twisted or moved or altered can communicate differently. These movements of body organs are numerous and all of them cannot be mentioned in this paper. This is especially the case when different cultures are involved. Martin and Friedman argue that nonverbal communication is quite essential especially where â€Å"verbal communications are untrustworthy, ambiguous or otherwise difficult to interpret† (Martin and Friedman 3). Topan shares the same views and adds that nonverbal communication is more important than verbal communication. He argues that this is because â€Å"up to 93 percent of all communication takes place at a nonverbal and paraverbal level† (Topan 132). Davis equally concurs by saying nonverbal communication has more effect than words (233). Nonverbal communication has clearly been ranked top as the best means of true expression. Indeed, Topan argues tha t people will choose to take the message they see in place of the one they hear (136). This simply means if there is a contradiction between what one is saying verbally and nonverbally, then the message communicated nonverbally is taken as the actually intended message that is being communicated. With a good understanding of what nonverbal communication is and even more importantly its significance, it is therefore necessary to examine how different cultures express themselves nonverbally. At this point, it is

Can Rehabilitation be Effective Research Paper Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words

Can Rehabilitation be Effective - Research Paper Example Earlier, or in 2007, Bonta and Andrews reported that Canada has been using a risk-need-responsivity or RNR model in reducing recidivism with an increasing success rate in assessing and rehabilitating criminals in Canada and around the world (p. abstract section). The RNR approach follows three principles: (1) match services based on the risk to offend among offenders (risk principle); (2) assess and target criminogenic needs in treatment (need principle); and (2) maximize the offender’s ability to learn from rehabilitation by providing cognitive behavioral treatment and designing specific interventions based on learning style, motivation, and situation of the offender (responsivity principle). Meanwhile, according to Murphy, in the English and Welsh Probation Service and Prison Service Programs of the United Kingdom, combines the RNR model discussed earlier and a model called the Good Lives Model (GLM). Murphy elaborated that the GLM focuses on helping offenders obtain what the probation and prison institutions termed as â€Å"human goods† or needs like intimacy, autonomy, and knowledge. Murphy stressed however that in the UK probation and prison programs that those that have adequate discharge planning, provide appropriate community aftercare services, and involve significant others have increasingly reduced recidivism. Much earlier, in 1996, Gendreau identified the principles of effective intervention: (1) services should be intensive and behavioral in nature given tangible, activity, and social reinforcers; (2) program contingencies and behavioral strategies should be implemented in a firm but fair manner.

The primary function of human resource management Essay

The primary function of human resource management - Essay Example t kinds of units within the organization and those that encourage directed learning as well as promoting inter-agency communication across the entire company are being increasingly viewed as having paramount importance. Furthermore, Human Resource department must develop a system of recognition and reward for the staff in regards to their contributions to the agency. To create value and deliver results, HR professionals must begin not by focusing on the work activities or work of HR but by defining the deliverables of that work. HRs roles in building a competitive organization include management of strategic human resources, management of transformation and change, management of firm infrastructure, and management of employee contributions (Ramlall, 2003, p. 51) The role of the Human Resource department has gone through substantial changes over the past century. Human Resources (HR) had its beginnings during the industrial revolution and by the early 1900’s many of the modern components of the HR department were falling into place. With the influx of unions, the Civil Service Commission, the industrial welfare movement and scientific research into management and the birth of industrial psychology, personnel departments became essential components of any well run business, from the 1920’s forward. Then as now, HR departments became the responsible sections for areas such as employment (hiring and firing), employee welfare (housing, medical, educational and financial), wage setting, safety, training, and health as well as employee benefits. (Jamrog, and Overholt, 2004) Then, during the middle part of the Twentieth century the human relations’ movement along with the application of knowledge and research from the disciplin es of the behavioral sciences and systems theory enhanced HR’s responsibilities and overall requirements. However, in spite of the tremendous amount of research showing that happy and well trained employees were more productive

Kant's Ethics (essay) Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words

Kant's Ethics ( ) - Essay Example But Kant postulated that a person's ethics, his course of action was guided by duty. He argued that a person may misapprehend a situation if he were acting out reason alone and that if he were acting out of experience only then it would be prejudiced if not supported with a proper reason. (Sullivan, 1994) Kant devised a singular moral obligation or categorical imperative which in turn is borne out of duty to explain his postulates. An imperative is a command that forces a person to exercise his will. A hypothetical imperative is a conditional command, that is, a person might be doing something to achieve some desired end. His actions are therefore conditional. Kant argued that morality required an unconditional assertion of a man's duty and hence postulated that reason decrees an unconditional or categorical imperative. The three formulations of Categorical Imperative are What the first formulation achieves to prove is that any deed cannot be moral if it is committed keeping an end result in mind. To establish a good deed the action has to be carried out without keeping the end result in mind. So to act in any situation one must exercise his will in the way he expects others to. The second formulation says that when faced with a moral situation one must think what others would not do in a similar situation. So if naturally no one does it, one must not do the same. The third formulation summarizes the whole of the Kantian moral philosophy by explaining that an act should be conducted under rationality. A rational will can exercise his will morally simply because the person can act without attaching any conditional worth to his actions. (Teale, 1951) He treats humanity not merely as means to an end but the end only. That is he commits an act out of a sense of duty rather than trying to achieve some other hidden propaganda through this deed. Thus he was able to prove that adherence to Categorical Imperatives ensures autonomous ethical choice because rational will is always autonomous and Kant puts rational will at the core of his postulates. This was based on Kant's own arguments for autonomy of the will against heteronomy of the will. He came to the conclusion that when a person acts out of his reasoning as opposed to some external law or command his actions would be more moral. Though the arguments seem plausible one cannot discount the fact that the autonomous will of a person may inherently be negative. What if the will of a person and others around him are also corrupted What can then act as an impulse for the actions of that person Kant seems to; as did Rousseau, believe in the basic goodness of humans. What moral code guides the acts of terrorism as it manifests itself in today's world The killing of innocent lives may be immoral to the larger section of the society but for the terrorists committing these acts may well be borne out of a sense of duty. (Sullivan, 1994) Kant himself answers this question. He argues that a rational will cannot act "except under the idea" of its own freedom. He says that there is no basis for

Communication Memo Assignment Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1250 words

Communication Memo - Assignment Example manager, allow me to share some relevant techniques and strategies in enhancing group communication, as well as in introducing the new employees to their teammates. I would initially provide some insights regarding potential barriers that might exist in group communication. Subsequently, I would describe relevant techniques to overcome those barriers and enhance group communication; prior to delving in expounding on the role of conflict in effective group communication. Authoritative sources are listed as a reference page for your perusal. Our organization welcomes new employees through an orientation program which aims to provide crucial information regarding the organization’s brief history, member of the executive management team and the organizational structure, policies and procedures, code of conduct and discipline, as well as the employees’ roles and responsibilities in their respective departments. The human resources department (HRD) has recently hired five (5) new employees to assume the position of HRD personnel in charge of assisting in various human resources functions: acquisition, development, and maintenance, among others. Currently, there are ten (10) human resources personnel who have effectively assisted the manager in undertaking these functions in the most effective manner. It was, therefore, recognized that effective group communication is a relevant aspect of the development of a cohesive group through collaboration and camaraderie. With the entry of five (5) new employees, there is a need to immerse these members to the HRD through the assumption of their respective roles. As such, theoretical frameworks of group development, conflict management, and application of effective group communication techniques through identification of barriers in group communication, would be proposed, as deemed necessary. There are barriers to communication that impede the flow and affect the ability to understand the messages transmitted in the most

English essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words - 1

English - Essay Example hat women have less physical ability and strength then men, of course those arguing with this pre-conceived notion are discounting the physical strength necessary to hold a child through gestation and give birth to that child after this. While many studies have indeed shown that generally women have less muscular development than men this does not by default cause them to be â€Å"weaker.† In fact according to one report; â€Å"statistics reveal that women live longer and are more resistant to many diseases† (Womens Rights 1). Socially it has often been the case in many societies both throughout the West and in the East that women are relegated to caring for the home. While this was acceptable when hunting and gathering as well as tribal approaches to life were necessary we live in a drastically changed world. Men no longer need to hunt or gather and while they still occasionally war so do women. Technological advances have become part of the great equalizer between men and women. In the military women are preforming far greater roles with regards to active duties. One example is Specialist Jamiell Goforth, who won the 2007 Forces Command Soldier of the Year competition at Fort Bragg, N.C (Administrator 1). There are more examples of other active duty women however, the point is made that in many formerly off limits areas for women they are in fact succeeding. In conclusion it seems clear that women are in fact not only able to succeed where men do, but are. By winning the ability to choose what they want with their lives they are in fact taking their role as equal humans with males and improving our society as a result. By increasing their roles, and winning previously male dominated sports and more they are gaining the additional freedom and truly becoming equal. Women are equal, now it is up to our society to understand that. The home is a springboard not a nursery, women are equal. FORSCOM Soldier of the Year Is Combat Medic." Militarywomen.org. N.p., 2010.

The Effects of War on Afghan Women, Children and Refugees Public Health Essay Example for Free

The Effects of War on Afghan Women, Children and Refugees Public Health Essay INTRODUCTION Armed conflicts have been major causes of disease, suffering and death for much of human history. The fatalities, injuries and disabilities suffered on the battlefield are obviously direct effects of conflict. But there are also health consequences from the breakdown of services and from population movements. The diverting of human and financial resources away from public health and other social goods contributes to the spread of disease. These indirect consequences of war may remain for many years after a conflict ends. Both the experience of conflict itself and the impact of conflict on access to health care determine the physical health and the psychological well-being of women and girls in very particular ways. Women are not only victims of the general violence and lack of health care they also face issues specific to their biology and to their social status. To add to the complexity of the picture, women also carry the burden of caring for others, including those who are sick, injured, elderly or traumatized. This in itself is stressful and often contributes to illness. Defining Terms Gender: The term gender includes both masculinity and femininity, not just one or the other. Across continents and cultures, established gender norms and values mean that women typically control less power and fewer resources than men. Not surprisingly, this often gives men an advantage in the economic, political, and educational arenas, but also with regard to health and health care. Certainly, there are instances where gender differences hurt mens health as, for example, when greater risk-taking among young men leads to higher accident rates, or higher levels of violence between men leads to greater death and disability . But, by and large, many health professionals believe that gender inequalities have led to a systematic devaluing and neglect of womens health. Children: are those who are still under the care of their parents. Who is below the legal age. After more than two decades of war, the health of Afghanistans people is ranked among the worst in the world. More than 800 children die every day, largely from preventable diseases. Nearly 1 in 4 Afghan children will not reach his or her fifth birthday, and their mothers do not fare much better. An Afghan woman is 100 times more likely to die of pregnancy-related problems than her American counterpart. These deaths are preventable. Since the fall of the Taliban, the Afghanistan Ministry of Health has been working steadily to improve access to basic health services specifically focusing on reaching women and children. Since early 2002, with funding support from the United States Agency for International Development (USAID), Management Sciences for Health has been working with the Ministry of Health to establish a foundation upon which a national health care system can be built and health services can be delivered within Afghanistan. The Effects of War on Afghan Children and Women Public Health War is one of the most destructive human activity. It destroys not only the physical side of a person but it degrades the human dignity. These happens to Afghanistan. Today it has one of the world’s poorest human development. Among the population of 24 million roughly 10.7 million are children under the age of 18 and half of the remaining population is women. The crisis of more than 23 years has left devastating effects on the health and well being of millions of women and children. It has killed over 1.5 million people, including more than 300,000 children. An extensive review of   social, physical, and mental health of Afghan children with an aim to depict the severity and complexity of the situation induced by war of more than a decade. Child Vulnerability Indicators in Afghanistan Series of wars and drought for more than three years have threatened the survival and existence of tens and thousands of women and children. According to a survey 60 % of Afghan children have lost their family member, and 39 percent have lost their home. The burden of poverty falls heaviest on the children, who frequently abandon education in order to contribute to family income. They work on farms, collect water and firewood and scavenge the garbage cans for food scraps. In Kabul alone, more than 50,000 children work as shoe polisher, selling fruits or newspaper or begging on the streets. More than five million people with a huge proportion of children are internally displaced. More than 6 million displaced Afghans represent the largest single group of refugees world-wide. Alone in Pakistan approximately three million Afghans have taken refuge in the last few years. Children comprise 20 % of the total number. Poverty prevails, with 80% of people living below the poverty level. Adult life expectancy is 45 years for men and 47 for women. According to the UNICEFs estimations more than 5 million people-70 percent of them women and children rely on humanitarian aid to survive. 75% of the population living in rural areas have no access to any kind of health facilities. According to the UNICEF, 2001 the total number of under five population in Afghanistan is 728049. War induced displacement and famine have forced large populations to move towards big cities in search of food and shelter. Among the internally displaced populations majority is under five, approximately 429567 in Kabul, 80930 in Logar, 126000 in Wardak, 49700 in South Parwan and 41852 are in Kapisa. Displaced populations are exposed to an unprecedented scale of disease, deaths and disabilities. Reports show that one in every four children dies before his or her fifth birthday and one in five children is born in a refugee camp. Infant mortality is 165 (per 1000 live births), under five child mortality 257 (per 1000 live births) and prospects for improving child health are still dimmer. Maternal morality is one of the highest in the world, i.e., 1700 per 100,000. Poor obstetric care and illiteracy have been proved to have a direct relation to the infant mortality. The deteriorating child health has been out of focus for decades. Repeated wars, political turmoil and disasters have left grave effects on the physical and mental health of children. Post traumatic disorders, widespread infectious diseases, malnutrition have increased the sufferings of Afghan children to an unacceptably higher level. The situation of internally as well as externally displaced Afghan children is grim. The trend of childhood mortality in Afghanistan from 1955 to 1990 has remained almost static and has shown very little improvement change so far. Neighboring countries like China and Iran, both have achieved considerable decline in the under five mortality ranging from 225 to 38 and 239 to 45 respectively while infant mortality in Afghanistan is still 165 (per 1000 live births) and childhood mortality 257 (under five per 1000 births)11. Nutritional Crisis and War injuries among children According to UN agency around 120,000 Afghan children currently face famine. Iodine and vitamin A deficiency is largely noticed. Report from Terre Des Hommes determined that chronic malnutrition remained high, with 53.7% of children between 6–59 months stunted, including 27.3% severely stunted making children more vulnerable to disease. An estimated 7.5 million children and adults are currently at risk of hunger and malnutrition. Rights of children were seriously and widely violated. Girls’ right to education and sports is still overtly denied. Socio-cultural norms put additional restrictions on women and girls. Because of the current crisis it is predicted that about 20–40 000 children could die and around 10 million people will be forced to live on US$1 a day. It certainly impacts access to health services, health allocations by the governments, access to drugs against HIV/AIDS, TB and malaria, and child health. There are currently estimated 5.3 million vulnerable people inside Afghanistan. Country’s health system performance is paralyzed and extensively damaged during the war on terrorism. None of the children growing up today in Afghanistan has ever known peace. It is estimated that over 2 million Afghans suffered from mental health problems. UNICEF-supported study in 1997 found that the majority of children under 16 years in Kabul suffer from psychosocial war trauma. Ninety-seven per cent had witnessed violence and 65 per cent had experienced the death of a close family relative. Experts say that approximately 30%–50% of a population undergoing violent conflict develops some level of mental distress. There are estimated 10 million land mines, the equivalent of roughly one for every child. Reported by Save the Children survey, 85% of all unexploded ordnance (UXO) victims were children in Kabul, during the years 1990-94. Alone 3,000 injuries from landmines and UXO in 1999 have been reported. More than 130,000 Afghans under the age of 18 have been killed by land mines so far. Disease Profile Measles, cholera, tuberculosis, malaria, meningitis, hepatitis, typhoid, childhood respiratory infections, and diarrhea are the major killer diseases. Diarrhea alone causes the death of 85,000 under five children per year. Two to three million malaria cases with 6% P. falciparum were notified to the health authorities in the last few years. Similarly leis mania affects seriously women and children in Afghanistan. Immunization coverage is profoundly low. Lastly noticed overall mortality due to measles and related complications was 10.8% in Kabul. In South Asia, over 40 percent of the total confirmed cases of polio occurred in Pakistan and Afghanistan in 2000. The mass migration of Afghans to Pakistan and to other neighboring countries has posed serious threat to the global polio eradication program. Moreover a tuberculin survey in Pakistan revealed that the prevalence of tuberculosis infection was 13.8% (May 1985) in a sample of 4108 Afghan children (average age of 8 years). Thirty-three percent had not received their BCG vaccination. A survey during the 1990–94 on cancer reported 22 % prevalence of 1655 children. 69% were males, 31% females Afghan refugees referred to the cancer hospital in Northern Pakistan. The Afghan Women In recent years more and more societies all over the world have begun to recognize the vital contributions of women to commerce, their communities, and civic life. Whether it be Afghan women voting in a presidential election or women starting micro-businesses in Ethiopia, the worldwide trend toward greater equality is clear. Yet the denial of womens basic human rights is persistent and widespread, as a 2005 United Nations Population Fund statement put it. ON DECEMBER 13, 2003, 502 members of Afghanistans constitutional Grand Council, or loya jirga, met in the capital, Kabul, to begin writing the document that would henceforth shape governance of an Islamic, representative democracy. Three weeks later, after at least two rocket attacks near the councils meeting place and even more explosive politicking among the councils members, the council emerged with a new constitution. Among those who watched the process with attention were Afghan women and their activist partisans in other parts of the world, who wanted the new constitution explicitly to reflect the rights and needs of women. They had particular reason to worry that the assembly gathered in Kabul would be hijacked by conservative extremists who would interpret womens rights narrowly using religion as an excuse, or who might eliminate mentions of womens human rights altogether. The Grand Council met just two years after the United States toppled the Taliban, the extremist party that had been in control of Afghanistans capital since 1996. The American objective was to destabilize a regime that had given refuge to Osama bin Laden and the leaders of Al Qaeda, whose bases were in Afghanistan. At that time, the United States linked its military agenda in Afghanistan with the need to liberate Afghan women from oppression. As First Lady Laura Bush put the matter in a national radio address in November 2001, The brutal oppression of women is a central goal of the terrorists. Long before the current war began; the Taliban and its terrorist allies were making the lives of children and women in Afghanistan miserable. The first lady went on to assert that the removal of the Taliban from power would mean the liberation of Afghan women. For the next year, Afghan women were big news: There were books and reports, and pictures on the front pages of newspapers showing formerly illiterate women learning to read. Women began the work of reconstructing their lives by returning to the streets, to school, to work. Then the war in Iraq began, and Afghan women, and Afghanistans reconstruction, became old news. By the beginning of 2003, warlords in provinces who had been allies of the United States when it went to war against the Taliban were instituting measures themselves that were reminiscent of the Taliban era. Human Rights Watch reported in January 2003 that in the Western province of Herat, girls and boys would no longer be permitted to go to school together. Because most teachers are men, the ruling effectively shut girls and women out of an education. Other restrictions against interactions between the sexes were imposed; girls or women seen in public with a male might be taken against their will to a hospital to check for their chastity. These alarming trends coincided with a sharp drop in international scrutiny, although Afghan women themselves continued to seek access to good health, higher education, and equal pay for their work. Their experience in the last two years has made it clear that simply removing a dictatorial regime and installing a democracy does not automatically guarantee womens rights. Indeed, the challenges facing womens effort to make sure their rights are legally enforceable in the future highlight broad conflicts in Afghanistan between conservative and liberalizing factions of the future government and between forces competing to control interpretations of Islam in the public sphere. Islam is the prism through which human rights are articulated in Afghanistan, and it is it is therefore crucial for women that their rights to education, work, and freely chosen marriages be articulated in its terms. The importance of the relationship between Islam and rights is one supported by women. Indeed, Ninety-nine percent of Afghan women are Muslims, and their faith is extremely important to them. Most feel their rights are available to them through Islam, says Masuda Sultan, the spokesperson for Women for Afghan Women (WAW), a New York City-based grassroots organization of Afghan women and their supporters. Sultan explains that the number of women who frame their rights in secular terms is much smaller. Womens rights doctrine that would take Islam into account was in evidence in the making of the Womens Bill of Rights, authored in September 2003 by a representative group of 45 women who found ways to interpret relevant Islamic edicts in ways that amplified their human rights. The bill of rights was the achievement of a unique conference on women and the constitution sponsored by WAW. Organized with the help of the Afghan Womens Network and Afghans for Civil Society, the Kandahar conference brought women together to deliberate over how their rights could best be reflected in the constitution. Kandahar, unlike the more liberal capital, is one of Afghanistans most conservative provinces, and it was unclear until the day of the conference whether it would be secure enough for the gathering to take place. It was, but only under heavily armed guard. The conference participants comprised elite female decision-makers as well as largely illiterate everyday women from all over the country. For some, simply completing the trip, whether alone or in the company of a male relative, was itself a triumph. Over the course of three days, these women reviewed the 1964 constitution on which the 2003 draft was based and began composing the 16-point bill of rights, framed by the demand that the rights be not simply secured in the constitution but implemented. Some of the demands are basics on the menu of modern human rights: women require mandatory education, equal pay for equal work, freedom of speech, and the freedom to vote and run for office and to be represented equally in Parliament and the judiciary. But other points are specific to the situation of Afghan Muslim women and responsive to the recent forms of deprivation imposed by the Taliban and long-standing excesses based on tribal convention. There is, for example, the demand that women and children be protected against sexual abuse, domestic violence, and bad-blood price when one family compensates a second for a crime by giving them one of the familys women. There is a request for the provision of up-to-date heath services for women with special attention to reproductive rights. Under the Taliban women were denied healthcare by male doctors, who were not allowed to touch the bodies of women to whom they were not related, and severe restrictions on womens movements made it difficult for female doctors to supply healthcare. Women made it clear they wanted the right to marry and divorce according to Islamic law. At the end of the conference, the document was presented publicly to President Hamed Karzai, and women were promised that their rights would be incorporated explicitly into the new constitution. However, when the draft constitution was released in November 2003, there was no explicit mention of womens rights. Instead, the constitution granted rights to all Afghan citizens. As Ritu Sharma, the co-founder and executive director of the Womens Edge Coalition and Afifa Azim, the director of the Afghan Womens Network, argued in a joint editorial on the eve of the councils meeting, lumping together men and women in the text of the constitution, rather than clearly designating rights for women as well as men is an important distinction because Afghan women are not issued the identification cards given to men. Therefore, some men argue, women are not citizens and entitled to equality. A crucial question at the Grand Council was whether women would be identified separately from men in the final constitution. It was a triumph when the constitution that was released contained an article stating that The citizens of Afghanistanwhether man or womanhave equal rights and duties before the law. At the same time, other challenges remain. The introduction of womens rights to the national political agenda cannot itself be taken for granted while control of the country is still in question. Although it is true that on paper, the government of Afghanistan is headed by President Karzai and moving toward democracy along well established lines such as the creation of a constitution, the actual situation in many parts of the country do not reflect this shift in power. The Taliban have reasserted power in Southern and Eastern parts of the country. Indeed, in the few days leading up to the meeting of the constitutional Grand Council, coalition forces waged their largest attacks to date on Taliban members who threatened violence against the proceedings. As a recent Amnesty International report also noted, Northern Alliance commanders who committed human rights abuses under the Taliban government now hold government positions themselves (the October 2003 report, Afghanistan: No one listens to us and no one treats us as human beings. Where these commanders govern, womens movements remain as restricted, or nearly as restricted, as they did before they were liberated. So, one of the threats to womens rights is related to the ongoing danger to the entire nations stability as well as to the ability of the most conservative or militant actors in Afghanistan to influence the political process. Extremists exploit claims to Islam to intimidate women. This means that although women themselves frame their rights in terms of Islam, they can also be intimidated into making claims for interpretations that dont serve their needs at all. Sultan explains: Security is still a huge issue, and regional warlords and extremists are around. A woman who doesnt speak in terms that acknowledge Islam will face trouble. The affirmation of being Muslim is important because otherwise theyll be called infidels or be threatened or seen as secular or non-Muslim. in the view of Sultan and others who work closely with Afghan women, is to promote the education of women in Islamic law and history so that they can express their own rights as well as refute interpretations that do not serve them. As the legal system begins to hammer out laws that confirm the bases of the constitution, such knowledge will be increasingly important. Jurists are qualified in Afghanistan through higher education or training in Islamic law. As Sultan notes, these qualifications leave open the door for those trained informally by radical Islamist clerics to shape law. Womens education in the language, tradition, and law through which they understand their rights and themselves is a practical and necessary step in this context. This may appear counterintuitive to onlookers in the United States and Europe, whose recent revolutions in rights have often taken place in social and political contexts that opposed democracy to religion. Enhancing the rights of women by encouraging their access to religious education may also seem counterintuitive in the present media environment, which is saturated by the idea that Islam is inherently undemocratic. But women working for their rights in Afghanistan make it clear that both Islam and democracy are evolving practices that permit competing interpretations. It is their right to shape both in ways that confirm their identities as women, Afghan citizens, and Muslims. The needs of women and children; Refugees in Iran Since at least the 1970s Afghans have been coming to Iran, some in search of work, others to seek protection. The political dominance by the Taliban since 1995 has been a significant factor in the acceleration in the flow of refugees. Refugees who came in the 1980s were given green cards’ which entitle them to live and work in Iran, and to benefit from schooling and health care. In the early 1990s the government’s policy towards refugees changed in the face of the worsening domestic economic situation. After 1992 the authorities stopped issuing refugee cards. The vast majority of Afghans who arrived in Iran since 1992 are considered illegal and have no right to asylum. Furthermore, between 1992 and 1994 many thousands of refugees lost their legal status in a systematic campaign of confiscations of green cards from Afghans living in Khorassan province (bordering Herat). It is not uncommon to find families who repatriated under the UN-sponsored programmed in 1996 and 1997, who have returned to Iran because of hardship or fear of persecution. These families had to give up their refugee cards when they repatriated and now live as illegal’ refugees who risk being arrested if found. In such a situation it is extremely difficult to keep accurate figures on the number of refugees in Iran. According to recent official figures, there are about 1.4m Afghans in Iran at present, of which only 22,000 (1.7 per cent) are living in camps. The vast majority of Afghans live integrated into Iranian society scattered around the country, mostly in cities where they can get jobs but also in villages and settlements in rural areas. The refugees areas are Kerman, Shiraz, Sistan- Baluchistan, Mashad, Teheran and Shahriyar (Teheran province). The area in which refugees face the most difficulties (in the south- eastern province of Sistan-Baluchistan), and highlighted the neglected issue of child labor. The most common types of work done by women and children and the income they earn. Work done at home includes shelling pistachios, cleaning wool, making brooms, cleaning saffron, making chains and carpet weaving. Children usually start work at an early age (sometimes as young as five years old). Once they reach school age, those who can get into school study about four hours a day at school and work between four and ten hours every day. Many Afghan children attend schools not formally recognized by the Ministry of Education and run by the Afghans themselves. There are at least 10 informal Afghan schools in Mashad and about 24 in Teheran, serving from 50 to 500 children each. NGOs such as Ockenden Venture and Global Partners have been supporting such schools for over a year now with their own funds and some funding from UNICEF. They have provided books and teaching materials, and have conducted eye tests for children and provided spectacles. Ockenden Venture has also organised some teacher training. MSF France has been carrying out a school health project in Mashad, and a local Afghan NGO (Relief Committee for Destitute Afghan Refugee Families) is helping to identify Afghan schools in Teheran and distribute books. Many questions remain unanswered as to why some children attend these schools and others do not. Aspirations versus reality The aspirations of Afghan women and children contrast heavily with the reality of the back-breaking, repetitive and poorly-paid jobs. The reasons for taking poorly paid and low-skilled work are illiteracy, being undocumented, having children to look after, and opposition from the husband or his family. The work has to be part-time, home-based and not requiring a green card’. One obstacle which the women identified also suggested its own solution. They said that their lack of familiarity with Iran, and particularly with job opportunities, means that they tend to take on the same jobs that other Afghan women are already doing. It was suggested that a job-search service would enable them to access information on other job opportunities. Education: the top priority Having seen the poverty of many refugee families at first hand, Afghan women needs to put income-earning opportunities as their top priority. In fact the top priority identified by almost all the groups was education: for the Hazaras it was education in general, but especially literacy; for the Pashtun women it was skills- training. They all believed that they could improve their own lives if they had some education. Solutions The impact of previous conflicts and recent war on children’s social, physical and mental health is enormous and needs a great deal of attention and commitment from the Government. While the debate of reconstructing Afghanistan is currently in progress, saving the future of nation and child health development must be a top priority. Joining these efforts, international assistance is direly needed to handle the deteriorating child health situation. Improving child health in Afghanistan is certainly a daunting task and will require committed and holistic efforts over period of years. Every aspect of child health needs to be dealt with an appropriate strategy. As evident from the facts that infectious diseases and war induced injuries contribute heavily to the current burden of disease, deaths and disabilities in Afghanistan. Therefore WHO’s strategies need to be universally adopted in the country. The strategy of integrated management of childhood illness (IMCI) addresses five major killer diseases with a simple and cost effective manner. War has left tens and thousands of orphans. Fewer than five children currently make a large proportion of Afghan’s population and immediate attention. In the prolonged period of war tuberculosis control program was severely disrupted. Tuberculosis control network need to be immediately restored, drugs provided with the Directly Observed treatment; short course (DOTS) strategy among internally displaced and non-adhered patients. All interventions need to focus equally on providing rehabilitation and treatment for mental illnesses, robustly expand and include program for massive immunization in their essential package of services. All legal measures need to be taken to protect children’s rights and specially that of girls to education, health and social choices at all fronts. For Refugees Using focus group discussions in the context of understanding the problems and aspirations of urban Afghan refugees has given us a great deal of information to which we did not previously have access. In particular, the fact that the refugees were able to participate in drawing up recommendations regarding the future work of NGOs was a very positive experience. It encourages the beneficiaries themselves to think about their situation and to come up with solutions. It also gives the organisations working with refugees a much clearer picture of the hopes and fears of a refugee community. Past experience at ICRI has shown us that involving the refugees themselves in decision making improves the implementation process, bringing about better results. This does not mean that one method should replace the other, but rather that the methods should be regarded as complementary. We know that the single most important factor which determines the living conditions of refugees in Iran is their legal status. In Afghanistan Samar   bring to the forefront the health and human rights challenges that face Afghan women and children. A leading authority on these issues in her country, Samar founded the Shuhada Organization in 1989 to implement innovative programs in health, education, construction, and income generation that improve the lives of women and children in Afghanistan and those living as refugees in Pakistan. The Shuhada Organization has grown to become the largest female-led non-government organization in Afghanistan and operates an extensive network of hospitals, clinics, schools and shelters as well as numerous other programs and services for women and children. â€Å"Boston University is honored to host Dr. Samar as a visiting scholar,† said Gerald T. Keusch, M.D., associate dean of Global Health, BU School of Public Health, and director of the Global Health Initiative. â€Å"Her work to improve the lives and healthcare for Afghan women and children under extraordinarily difficult conditions has made her an icon in global health and her efforts will ideally lead to new policies that will advance the country’s medical and education infrastructure.† The recipient of numerous honors and awards, including the 2004 Jonathan Mann Award for Health and Human Rights, Samar is an international symbol of the steadfast courage required to demand basic human rights for women and children in Afghanistan. In addition to directing the Shuhada Organization, Samar served as the country’s first Minister of Womens Affairs during the interim government, leading the effort to restore economic, political, legal and social rights to women. In her current role as Chair of the Afghan Independent Human Rights Commission, she oversees the conduct of human rights education programs across the country, implementation of a nationwide women’s rights education program, and monitoring and investigation of human rights abuses. The Global Health Initiative at Boston University was established to promote multi-disciplinary research, education, outreach and policy studies across and beyond the Boston University community, and to contribute to reducing disparities in health through the generation of new knowledge, the education of students as â€Å"global citizens,† and the development of partnerships with global health leaders, scholars, and practitioners around the world. In Afghanistans villages, provincial centers, and Ministry of Public Health; in clinics, hospitals, and pharmacies; in classrooms, workshops, and training centers—REACH is empowering the Afghan people to rebuild a health system damaged and neglected during more than two decades of war. A community health worker teaches a mother in a rural Afghan village how to care for her sick child. A young woman improves her literacy level to qualify her for midwifery training. An Afghan midwife attends refresher training about safe motherhood. A provincial health team develops an immunization campaign to protect children against common diseases. The Afghan Ministry of Public Health develops management systems and standards to improve service delivery. Over seven million men, women, and children have access to primary healthcare services. Increasing access to Afghan health services thru (REACH) Through a performance-based grants program and technical support for training and education, REACH has enabled expansion of Afghanistans child health, maternal health, basic obstetric care, and family planning services now accessible to 7.1 million people. REACH grantees have trained over 5,000 community health workers who are working in 14 of Afghanistans 34 provinces. Providing health education in Afghanistan REACH promotes health education and behavioral change that is improving the ability of individuals, families and communities to protect their health. REACH also provides health-based accelerated literacy training to qualify young women to enter nursing and midwifery schools. Strengthening health systems Working with the Afghan Ministry of Public Health to develop and implement national health policies, standards, and management and information systems, REACH is helping Afghanistan shape its healthcare system for the future. Through close collaboration with counterparts in Afghanistan and with the international donor and nongovernmental community, REACH is addressing immediate needs while ensuring that current activities are consistent with long-term development objectives. References: Armstrong, J., Ager, A. (2005, March). Perspectives on disability in Afghanistan and their implications for rehabilitation services. International Journal of Rehabilitation Research, 28, 87-92. Cultural Orientation Project. (2002). Afghanstheir history and culture. Retrieved October 20, 2004, from http://www.culturalorientation.net/afghan/atoc.html Cummins, C. (2002). The front linenursing refugees. Journal for Community Nurses, 7(1), 7. Daly, C. M. (1999). The paarda expression of hejaab among Afghan women in a non-Muslim comunity. In L. Arthur (ed.). Religion, Dress and the body, Oxford: Berg. Disability World. (n.d.) Epilepsy in the Afghan Village. Retrieved October 11, 2006, from http://www.disabilityworld.org/01-03_02/arts/afghan.shtml. Farella, C. (2002). Far and away: RNs give safety, solace to Afghan refugees. Nursing Spectrum, 6(9), 36-7. Gerritsen, A. A. M., et al. (2006). Physical and mental health of Afghan, Iranian, and Somali asylum seekers and refugees living in the Netherlands. Social Psychiatry and Physchiatric Epidemiology, 41(1), 18-26. Ghatrifi, D., Ghatrifi, R., Eivazkhani, S., Ghatrifi, M. (2006). Research on sexual and reproductive health and rights beliefs and traditions among Afghan refugees. Journal of Sex Research, 43(1), 18. Giger, N. J., Davidhizar, R. (2002). Culturally competent care: Emphasis on understanding the people of Afghanistani Americans, and Islamic culture and religion. International Nursing Review, 49(2), 79-86. Grima, B. (n.d.) Women, culture, and health in rural Afghanistan. Expedition, 44(3), 34-39. Halimi, K. M. (2002, February). Afghan refugees: The ugly truth. Annals of Emergency Medicine, 39(2), 200-2. Kemp, C., Rasbridge, L. (2004). Afghanistan. In C. Kemp and L. Rasbridge (Eds.), Refugee and immigrant health: A handbook for health professionals (pp.83-90). New York: Cambridge. Lindgren, T., Lipson, J. G. (2004, April). Finding a way: Afghan womens experience in community participation. Journal of Transcultural Nursing, 15(2), 122-130. Lipson, J. G. (1993). Afghan refugees in California: Mental health issues. Issues in Mental Health Nursing, 14(4), 411. Lipson, J. G., Hosseni, T., et al. (1995). Health issues among Afghan women in California. Health Care for Women International, 16(4), 279-286. Lipson, J. G., Miller, S. (1994). Changing roles of Afghan refugee women in the United States. Health Care for Women International, 15(3), 171-180. Lipson, J. G., Omidan, P. A. (1996). Ethnic coalitions and public health: Delights and dilemmas with the Afghan Health Education Project in northern California. Human Organization, 55(3), 355-361. Lipson, J. G., Omidian, P. (1992). Health issues of Afghan refugees in California. The Western Journal of Medicine, 157(3), 271-286. Lindgren, T., Lipson, J. G. (2004). Finding a way: Afghan womens experience in community participation. Journal of Transcultural Nursing, 15, 122-130. McCaw, B. R., DeLay, P. (1985, August). Demographics and disease prevalence of two new refugee groups in San Francisco: The Ethiopian and Afghan refugees. Western Journal of Medicine, 143(2), 271-275.

Sanitary conditions in Mauritius slaughter houses

Sanitary conditions in Mauritius slaughter houses INTRODUCTION A slaughterhouse, also known as an abattoir is a place where animals are sacrificed for food. It can also be defined as any premises used for the slaughter of animals whose meat is intended for human consumption. The slaughtering of animals for community consumption is inevitable in most nations of the world and dated back to the ancient times (Bello and Oyedemi, 2009). Public slaughter houses had been traced to Roman civilization and in France by 15th and 16th centuries, and were among the public facilities. In Italy, a law from 1890 stipulated that public abattoir should be provided in all communities comprisingof more than six thousand inhabitants. Similar things were reported in Norway, Sweden, Denmark, Netherlands and Rumania (Jode Loverdo et al. 1906). The animals most commonly killed for food are cattle, sheep (for goat and mutton), pigs (for pork), goats (for chevon), and fowl, largely chickens, turkeys, and ducks, for poultry meat. The most important issue in all meat-processing plants is maintenance of proper hygiene and adequate sanitary conditions to prevent contamination and in this way caters for a product which is safe and sound for the public. An abattoir as defined above is a building approved and registered by the controlling authority for hygienic slaughtering and inspection of animals, processing and effective preservation and storage of meat products for human consumption (Alonge, 1991), as such the sanitation line in a slaughter house must be flawless. Slaughtering animals on a large scale brings about significant technical problems and public health concerns. Furthermore, some religions insist on certain specific conditions for slaughtering practices so that slaughter within slaughter houses may change. As such abattoirs commence the chain of the meat industry, where livestock come from farms for processing and dressing and passes through markets to enter the food chain (Wikipedia Encyclopedia). The values, morals, ethics and regulations ruling slaughter houses changes significantly throughout the world. In several countries the slaughter of animals is delimited by folklore and traditions instead of the law. In the non-Western world, including Muslim countries both forms of meat are obtainable, that is product from modern mechanized slaughter houses, and the other from local meat shops. The situation in Mauritius is typically representative of the conflict between modern processes and religious practices with regards to the slaughtering of animals for the supply of meat to the population. Over the last few decades there have been important developments meat inspection systems in slaughter houses. As compared to the most highly developed countries which have taken the lead in bringing about changes in the meat inspection procedures in slaughterhouses by enacting new legislations (These new laws have been reproduced by the Codex Alimentarius in its Codes of Good Practice and this resulted in the homogenization of the world trade in foodstuffs) (Schnà ¶ller, 2006), we, on the national level, are dealing with a more pious look over the slaughtering industry which is delimited by religious practices. As per the legislation enforced in Mauritius, the Mauritius Meat Authority is the only institution empowered to deal with the slaughtering of animals. Aim The aim of the study is to carry out an assessment on the sanitary conditions prevailing in slaughter houses in Mauritius. Objectives The main purpose of this survey is to know to what extent are the workmen of slaughter houses aware of importance of sanitary practices and what it entails, to see if sanitary practices are respected and analyse the possible route by which contamination by pathogenic micro organisms may occur in slaughter houses. LITERATURE REVIEW Sanitation in the slaughter house Thewordsanitationcomesfromthelatinwordsanitas,whichmeanshealth, it has many different meanings but it can be generally defined as the hygienic means of promoting health through prevention of human contact with the hazards of wastes. Such hazards can be physical, microbiological, biological or chemical agents of disease (Wikipedia Encyclopedia). The slaughter house should be constructed in such a way as to respect all the norms and regulations and planned such that all processes runs smoothly without contaminating or hindering the quality of the end product. Primarily there are several key factors that a slaughter house should observe to be able to satisfy the necessary conditions which will contribute to adequate sanitation for the prevention of contamination. PROPER INFRASTRUCTURES AND PLANNING OF THE SLAUGHTER HOUSE Site of building Ideally the slaughterhouse should be located away from residential areas to prevent possible inconvenience to dwelling-places either by way of pollution from slaughter wastes or by way of nuisance from noise (FAO Animal Production and Health Paper 49). There must be free access for animals to the site by road and the slaughterhouse should be situated in areas where flooding is unlikely to happen. If the slaughterhouse is of regular buildings construction the ground should be free of bushes or vegetation in the vicinity of the structure (FAO, 1985). Size The amount of animals to be slaughtered should take into account the the size of slaughter facility and the number of animals to be slaughtered is of great importance to avoid sanitary problems due to overcrowding (Tove, 1985). Building / facility The building or facility of such process has normally been described as places which stands for good sanitation and hygiene. According to the norms stipulating such process the building should normally have clean and unclean processes separated. Walls and Floors The flooring of the facility which is one of the major source of contamination must be hard, free of cracks, evenly leveld and impervious, and sloping adequately towards a drain to allow cleaning with water and disinfection. The walls as well must be smooth enough to be easily cleaned by water, and recommended materials are, for instance, stone, lava blocks, bricks or concrete. To provide shade, a good environment and finally to keep down the internal temperature in the slaughter line, a roof made up of concrete would be ideal (P.J. Eriksen, 1978). lighting system As a matter of hygiene, the slaughterhouse should have a proper lighting system inside the slaughter line to allow proper functioning and avoid accidents and moreover will act as a deterrent to insects and rodents. Ventilation system The internal temperature inside the slaughter house shall be maintained to prevent proliferation of unwanted micro organisms and also to cater for a good working environment. Equipment Equipment for undergoing such process, normally have to follow certain norm and regulation, it has been reported that such equipments have to be of non-corrosive materials, for example stainless steel and structures like tables, hooks and machines should be that they are easy to disassemble to facilitate cleaning and disinfection. The key step for the hygienic handling of carcasses is the equipment for elevating the carcass when slaughtered. In the processing line cranes are preferred to working tables due to hygienic practices. Procedures assuring continuous cleaning of hoists are recommended and should be performed on a periodical basis. However the cleaning and disinfection is usually complicated or simply impossible because of the complexity of the machines (Tove, 1985). Water supply Water is a vehicle for the transmission of several agents of disease and continues to cause significant outbreaks of disease in developed and developing countries (Kirby, 2003). A cholera epidemic in Jerusalem in 1970 was traced back to the consumption of salad vegetables which were irrigated with raw waste water (Shuval, 1986). In Canada, an outbreak of E.coli was reported (Kondro, 2000) and In the USA, Cryptosporidium affected approximately 400,000 consumers and caused 45 deaths and in 1993 due to the consumption of contaminated water (Kramer, 1996, Hoxie, 1997). Since slaughtering is a process which generates a lot of wastes, to cater for the good running of the processes and minimize contamination, there should be a good supply of water of drinking quality to allow processing and cleaning procedures which will assure hygienic quality products. Working routines should be planned in such a way as to economically use the consumption of water because of waste water disposal (Tove, 1985). Sanitary facilities Several water points, sterilizers for hand tools, hoses and cleaning equipment is the key to provide a good standard of hygiene and must be provided sufficiently. The availability of hot water in preference to chemical disinfectants should be supplied with the sterilizers where possible (Tove, 1985). Sanitary facilities must also include an adequate number of toilets and arrangements for hand-washing and even for bathing (showering). Such facilities must be clean and well kept at all times and the toilets should possess hand wash basins along with soap, disinfectants, antiseptics, nailbrushes and clean towels readily available. A mess room for resting and eating should be provided to the staff and as such be separated from the processing line to assure that the carcasses and the food for the personnel cannot be mixed (FAO animal production and health paper; 53). ENVIRONMENTAL HYGIENE As in all sectors of hygiene, the external and internal environment of the slaughter house should be protected against any infestation. Insects, birds and rodents have been recognized as important carriers of pathogens and other micro organisms (Olsen and Hammack, 2000). To avoid these, a strict control should be exerted over the following: Pests Control Good Hygienic Practices (GMP) should be employed to avoid generating an environment favorable to pests (CAC, 1997). A control system for pest control must include the following: Good Hygienic Practices should be used to avoid creating an environment conducive to pests Pest control programs could include preventing access to principle site, eliminating harbourage and establishing monitoring detection and eradication systems. Physical, chemical and biological agents should be properly applied by suitably qualified personnel. Souce: http://www.fao.org/docrep/005/Y1579E/y1579e02.htm Proper fencing The aim is to prevent access of unauthorized persons, the public in general, dogs and other animals around the slaughterhouse premises. The fencing should have direct contact with the ground and should be sufficiently high to prevent access inside the premises. Bird control The best control is to prevent them from accessing the buildings by placing nets on the openings and windows. Allowing birds to fly inside the slaughter house might cause contamination through its droppings. Bird are often attracted by food supplies, water, special vegetation around buildings, and these attractants should be removed. SLAUGHTERING PROCESSING The hallmark for hygiene principle in processing is that the procedures considered as clean and considered as unclean should be efficiently separated. This requires a well-structured plant layout, where the purpose of any structure should be the protection of the end product against accidental contamination (Tove, 1985). Transport The animals are hauled from pastures or farms to the slaughterhouse. All necessary precautions during transportation should be considered to minimize stress and injury to the animals and as such will cater for the good quality of the end product (Tove, 1985). Road transport is probably the cheaper and more convenient means for conveying animals. Below are some precautions that are worthwhile during road transporting of the animals to slaughter: The transport facility should be designed and modified to convey the stock; they should provide for sufficient ventilation and lighting; for open trucks the top should be covered with a tarpaulin to protect the animals from bad weather conditions, they should be equipped with appropriate loading and unloading mechanisms to prevent injuries, and most importantly; they should be as comfortable as possible for the animals. Source: FAO Animal Production and Health Paper 49, Manual for the slaughter of small ruminants in developing countries, 1985. Lairage Lairage is a place where livestock are kept temporarily (Microsoft Encarta 2008) and in our present situation is a specific area inside the premises of a slaughter house where the animals are conveyed for rest. Rest is an important factor because when animals are stressed, carcasses of lower quality result from slaughter. There should be sufficient space for the animals and a good supply of potable water for drinking purposes. A washing system where the animals can be cleaned before passing to the slaughter house is generally recommended (FAO animal production and health paper; 53). Source: Heinz G, Abattoir development. Options and designs for hygienic basic and medium-sized abattoirs, 2009 (http://www.fao.org, Annex 7). Stunning, slaughtering and bleeding Common methods for stunning consists of: Captive Bolt Pistol (CBP) This stunning method is extensively used for all agrarian animals. Gun powder (cartridge), compressed air and spring under tension propels the bolt through the skull of animals. The name captive means that the bolt is shot out of the barrel but remains in the pistol. Concussion stunning: A mechanically operated instrument which delivers a blow to the brain. Used for cattle, sheep and calves. Another method which consisted of knocking or striking a hammer on the head of the animal is now banned with regards to humane practices in some countries. Free bullets: are generally used on animals which are difficult to handle for instance, wild pigs, bison and deer. Electric Stunning Head-Only Stunning: generally cattle, sheep, pork and are all stunned by the use of this method. The technique involves the application an electric shock using a pair of tongs on either side of the animals head. An electric current is passed through the brain and this leads to the temporary loss of consciousness. Source: The Slaughter of Livestock (part 2): Modern Techniques of Slaughtering by M.Abdulsalam (www.IslamReligion.com). Slaughtering and Bleeding After stunning, the animal is vertically hanged lifting the animal (head down) to a convenient height. The bleeding operation is made by inserting a knife through the neck behind the jaw bone and below the first neck bone. The aim is to sever the carotid artery and jugular vein (Pig slaughtering, www.Hyfoma.com) and let the blood to drain out. The exsanguination process should be as fast and complete as possible due to hygienic norms since insufficient bleeding and slow death could result in blood clotting in the deep tissues and this might be hazardous in the later stages of slaughtering. Elevation bleeding is more hygienic and is preferred other alternatives as it decreases the potential risk of contaminating the carcass (Heinz, 2008). This process is usually separated from the operations which will follow. If the blood is not intended for use it should be drained away into a separate pit and should not be allowed to drain into the waste water (Tove, 1985). Skinning /dehairing The process will vary according to animal (pigs and cattle). Such process consists of removing the skin of animals. Cutting of the skin is made around the leg with the perspective of exposing and loosen the tendon of the animals lower leg joint to be used for hanging the carcass, following which the entire skin is removed and the body is prepared for evisceration (Heinz, 2008). This process is usually meant for cattle, goat, deer and sheep. Whereas dehairing is a process normally done in the slaughter of pigs which consists of releasing the bled animal into a pool of boiling water for a couple of minutes and then pulling it out for removal of the hairs before proceeding for evisceration. Evisceration Evisceration is the process which consists of removing the internal organs of the abdominal and thoracic cavities. The internal organs are also known as offal and they falls into two categories: Red offal such as the heart, liver and lungs (pluck). Grey offal such as the stomach or intestine (paunch). To avoid contamination of the carcass through accidental punctures of the intestines and stomach, it is important that the carcass is placed in the hanging position. The body cavity is severed and the intestinal mass and the stomach (the paunch) are pushed slightly out. The liver is held out care is taken not to spill its bitter contents onto the carcass and as such spoil the taste of the meat. The last stage in evisceration is the removal of the contents from the chest cavity. By cutting the diaphragm which separates the thoracic cavity from the belly, the pluck can be pulled out as a unit (Heinz, 2008). Leakage from the rectum is prevented by tying the anus with a process called bagging. Splitting and trimming The carcass is cut down along the backbone and split into two sides using a brisket saw and is then subjected to inspection from an authorized officer for detection of diseases . Trimming is a process that should be performed by trained employees and consists of the removal of visible contamination. All equipment (hooks and knives) should be sanitized between each use to reduce cross-contamination between areas. Carcasses which have been railed out for visible contamination, such as fecal contamination, should be re-conditioned as quickly as possible to get the carcass through the process and back into the system (Harris and Savell et al., 2003). Delivery After undergoing all processes in the slaughter line, the carcass is weighed and finally labeled for identification and send for delivery on the local markets. PRECAUTIONS THAT HAVE TO BE MAINTAINED IN THE SLAUGHTERING PROCESS AS PER HEINZ (2008) INVOLVES THE FOLLOWING: Disinfection on entering the premises Every time an authorized officer or member of the staff is to enter the slaughter house, he should undergo a process of disinfection by dipping his boots in a footbath, which is a basin situated at each entrance of the slaughter line, to avoid carrying infectious agents that might stick to the boots via soil particles. Bleeding and exsanguinations The knife used to slaughter each animal should be cleaned and rinsed in hot water. It is known that a contaminated knife can pass on bacteria into the animal tissues during the initial stages of bleeding, that is, when the heart is still in pumping. Skinning Knife skinning and the use of bare hands can similarly hosts contaminating organisms on the surface of the carcass. As such washing of the hands is a must after the passage of each carcass to avoid contamination of same. Evisceration Extreme care should be emphasized on not to puncture the intestines. The slaughtermen should follow the procedure of tying the end part of the intestine and the severed end of the esophagus, then removing intestine and stomach first, followed by the pluck ( heart, liver, and lungs of an animal used as meat, Microsoft Encarta, 2008). The pluck should be hung on a hook while the paunch (stomach) should be dropped in a paunch container. As a matter of hygiene, the stomach and intestines should not be processed while carcass dressing is in operation as any minor splash from same can easily cause contamination of the meat. Washing Is a process by which the carcasses undergoes washing with clean potable water. If water is a problem then a dry slaughter process by trained slaughtermen should be used as alternative as it is more appropriate as a safety measure for carcasses to be dry clean than to contaminate them with polluted water. Offal handling The offals (stomach and intestines) are the organs from the carcass which contains the greatest load of infectious organisms and for preventive measure must be moved to a separated chamber provided for them. At first they should be emptied of their contents, dried, then cleansed with water. Personnel The personal hygiene of the workmen is a primordial factor in slaughtering operations, the reason is simply that contamination of food and disease transmission as such depend equivalently upon the human factor as well as on the tools and mode of operation. Transfer of microorganisms by personnel particularly from hands is of vital importance (Chen et al.2001, Montville, 2001, Bloomfield, 2003). During handling, bacteria are transferred from contaminated hands of workers to the food and subsequently to other surfaces (Montville, 2002). Low infectious doses of organisms such as shigella and pathogenic Escherichia coli have been linked to hands as a source of contamination (Snyder, 1998). Poor hygiene, particularly deficient or absence of hand washing has been identified as the causative mode of transmission (Reji, 2003). Proper hand washing and disinfection has been recognized as one of the most effective ways to control the spread of pathogens, especially when considered along with th e restriction of sick workers (Alder, 1999, Montville, 2001). Moreover persons with unhygienic habits like spitting, coughing and nose-blowing should not be under umployment. As such it is important to allow access only to the staff into the premises at the time of slaughter and they should be wearing the proper attire, e.g. clean trousers and wearing appropriate waterproof aprons. Boots as well should be worn with the trousers neatly folded inside. And the hallmark is that the workers must strictly abide to a formal code of hygiene. Hand-washing As stated by the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC): It is well-documented that one of the most important measures for preventing the spread of pathogens is effective hand washing (http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hand_washing). Fundamentally the good habit of careful and frequent hand-washing will definitely reduce contamination. Therefore hand-washing facilities with sufficient water supply is a must in such a delicate process of this kind. Basically the mess room and the working area is where there should be several hand-washing points. If it is situated away from working places, the risk that they will not be used is higher and would probably result in contamination of the meat (Tove, 1985). Hand-washing should be done by all members if the working staff: before starting slaughter after being to the toilets after being into contact with dirty objects and materials after smoking and eating The staff should understand that hands is prone to contamination if used for scratching the skin, the hair, clothes and picking the nose. Such acts may cause bacteria to be transmitted to the hands and thereafter infect the meat which is handled by the same hands. The management of slaughter house should provide antiseptic soap or germicidal, coupled with the use of brush for washing of hands since bacteria are often under the nails (FAO animal production and health paper; 53). Cleaning Operations For the purpose of sanitation clean water is usually required for the cleaning of equipment, tools floors and walls. Such operation normally starts with removal of solid waste of meat and fat trimmings, pieces of bones, blood clots by scrubbing them off the floor. High pressure water cleaning begins from the walls and finally ends with the floors. Hot water hosing under pressure would be ideal for removing sticky waste from corners and drains. For scrubbing of other surfaces such as tables, and tools, the use of hard fibre brushes and detergents is suggested. Liquid detergents are more effectual than ordinary soaps, since they dissolve easily in water while absorbing dirt, which is finally removed by flushing. Powdered soap may also be dissolved in water and used. Knives also should be sterilized or boiled in water. Source: FAO Animal Production and Health Paper 49, Manual for the slaughter of small ruminants in developing countries, 1985. DISEASES ASSOCIATED WITH UNHYGIENIC SLAUGHTERING There are many different ways by which an infectious organism can make its way through the slaughtering process of animals and cause very subsequent diseases. Below is some of the common diseases related to slaughter houses: Anthrax is a naturally-occurring bacterial disease of animals caused by Bacillus anthracis, which forms spores that generally survive for years in the environment. Cattle, sheep, and goats are at the highest risk but humans can also contract the disease. Most animals are infected by oral ingestion of soil contaminated with the spores. People may acquire anthrax when in contact with infected hides or hair of animals. The organism is inhaled from contaminated dust, or is eaten in undercooked meat from infected animals, or even penetrates a wound in the skin. Animals that died of anthrax may have blood secreted from the mouth, nose, and anus (Pelzer .K and Currin .N). In slaughtering process, the bacteria can be transferred from hides of infected animals to the hides of the healthy ones during the immediate pre-slaughter phase in lairage (Small and Buncic, 2009). As such if no particular precaution is taken when removing the hides, the probability of contaminating the carcass is very high. Brucellosis Brucellosis is an infectious disease caused by contact with animals carrying bacteria called Brucella which affects a wide variety of animals including dogs, cattle, pigs, sheep, goats and horses. The disease has been known as Malta fever, Bangs disease, Mediterranean fever, rock fever, and goat fever (Microsoft Encarta, 2008). Humans can be infected if in contact with infected meat or placenta of infected animals. The slaughter of undetected a diseased animal is a threat since contamination may result if, for instance, blood from the infected carcass came into contact with the knife of the slaughterman and the same knife is being used for processing another uninfected carcass during the slaughtering. In case of ingestion of infected meat, symptoms in humans are undulating fever, headache, joint pain, weakness, and night sweats (Pelzer .K and Currin .N). People who handle meat should wear PPE such as protective glasses and clothing for protection of wounds from infection. Detecting infected animals prior to slaughter controls the infection at its source. Vaccination is actually available for cattle, but not humans (Franco et al, Goldman et al. 2007). Escherichia coli Escherichia coli (E. coli) are bacteria which is normally found as a normal flora in the intestines of people and animals. One can get infected after handling or being exposed to feces of a carrier animal (Pelzer .K and Currin .N). Animals usually carry it without causing disease however when humans are infected, the toxins causes serious illness which ranges from diarrhoea to kidney failure. Personal hygiene is very important, particularly after contact with animal feces, since very few organisms are required to cause infection in humans (Stevenson and Hughes, 1988). E-coli can be easily contaminate the carcass in the slaughtering process if ; for instance the worker does not wash his hands after being to the toilet, the bacteria will be transferred when handling the meat. care is not taken at the evisceration step when disemboweling the carcass, as such if the intestines get perforated and intestinal matter comes into contact with the meat ( Heinz, 2008) Prevention focuses on hand washing and proper hygiene. Hands and all equipments should be properly disinfected after touching or handling raw meat (Pelzer .K and Currin .N). Salmonellosis (Gastroenteritis) Salmonella sp. are bacteria that live in the intestinal tract of carrier animals. The bacteria are shed into the faeces of animals which are particularly stressed during steps such as being yarded and transported (Stevenson and Hughes, 1988). As in E-coli contamination, salmonella can be transferred to the carcass in the slaughtering line by: slaughtermen who are handling meat after being to the toilet without proper hand washing, fecal matter being in contact with the meat at the evisceration process, if the anus is not bagged properly, and also if the intestines get punctured upon removal and intestinal matter is in contact with the meat. If hands are not properly washed after contact with infected feces, the accidental ingestion of bacteria may occur (Pelzer .K and Currin .N). Infection also occurs as a result of equipments that are unsanitary. Symptoms generally includes fever, foul smelling diarrhea, and severe dehydration, especially in young children and infants. Life-threatening diseases like meningitis and septicemia may also occur (Montes and DuPont, 2004). Q-fever (Query fever) Q fever is a bacterial infection that can affect the lungs, liver, heart, and other parts of the body. It is found around the world and is caused by the bacteria Coxiella burnetii. The bacteria affects sheep, goats, cattle, dogs, cats, birds and rodents as well as some other animals (Goldman and Ausiello, 2007). Humans normally acquire fever, night sweats, and pneumonia and hepatitis in the worst cases (Pelzer .K and Currin .N). Abattoir workers (particularly those dealing with foetuses), veterinarians and farm workers ) are the people who are most at risk of contracting this disease (Stevenson and Hughes, 1988). In slaughtering meat can be contaminated in the process of evisceration whereby feces of contaminated animals have been transferred to the hands of the slaughterman which in turn contaminates other healthy carcasses. To prevent further spread of Q fever, dead fetuses and reproductive tissues should be buried or burned. Wearing of protective equipment such as gloves and eyewear (PPE) when assisting in birthings and washing of hands thoroughly afterward are highly recommended (Pelzer .K and Currin .N). LAWS PERTAINING TO THE SLAUGHTERING INDUSTRY IN MAURITIUS Nowadays not all people are entitled to slaughter animals as it used to be in the past. There are norms and standard which have been set up by the necessary authority to guarantee the safety of the end product to the public. As such in each country there is an institution which is responsible for maintaining this hallmark. In our present situation the regulating body responsible for slaughtering in Mauritius is the MAURITIUS MEAT AUTHORITY (MMA). The main lines of the re

Study into the Prevalence of FGM in Nigeria

Study into the Prevalence of FGM in Nigeria 2. METHODOLOGY 2.1 Data The Nigerian Demographic Health Surveys (NDHS) of 2013 supporting evidence and additional sources of data from published reports of NDHS 2013 have been used in this study. Datasets for 2013 Nigerian DHS were downloaded following approval from measuredhs.com. Authorisation was obtained via registering with measuredhs.com, requesting permission to use datasets. Permission to use data was granted via email. (Appendix I). Demographic Health surveys have been ongoing for over 30 years in over 90 countries with over 300 surveys aimed at fostering global knowledge of health and population trends in developing countries. DHS surveys are nationally representative household surveys in women aged 15-49 (and sometimes men aged 15-49) which yield internationally comparable data on health indicators in developing countries. Datasets produced from this surveys are owned by measuredhs.com as part of the projects implemented by Macro International, with its funding from USAID. In most countries the DHS surveys are conducted every five years providing retrospective estimates of four years including year of study, with large samples from households through face to face interviews using standardised questionnaires designed to gather information on female genital cutting, maternal and child health, nutrition, HIV/AIDS, family planning, gender, malaria as well as the socioeconomic and demographic characteristics. DHS surveys involve large samples In Nigeria, the National Population Commission (NPC) representing the Federal Government of Nigeria, conducts the survey with technical assistance from Macro International. The purpose of this data collected is to direct policy making, planning, monitoring and evaluation of programmes. Two phases are involved; First phase involves enumeration of urban and rural areas in clusters based on national population distributions. Eligible households are selected using systematic sampling, allowing for a large sample to achieve statistically significant results (Hajian-Tilaki, 2011). The second phase involves data collection using the three standard DHS questionnaires (household, women and men questionnaires). In the Nigerian Demographic Health Survey 2013, data was collected over five months, completed questionnaires were then edited, processed in CSPro computer package and all that was cleaned. This ensures accuracy of information and confidentiality to participants. Data collected is standardized by weighting adjusting for over and under sampling to produce representative results (NDHS, 2013). The NDHS 2013 facilitates a comprehensive picture of the current global trends on knowledge and prevalence of FGM among women and their daughters, types of circumcision, age at circumcision, and attitudes toward the practice to be constructed. Prior to NDHS Surveys of 2013 there were subsequent surveys in 1999, 2003, 2008 which collected data on FGM. This surveys reported prevalence of FGM in Nigeria amongst women age 15 to 49 as shown in table below: Table 2.1 showing prevalence of FGM in Nigeria from NDHS surveys. The prevalence of FGM in Nigeria from 2003 to 2008 recorded an increase and this was partly from the use of a new definition for what constitutes as FGM and also differences in the data available for selecting the sample. Interviewers used in the northeast of Nigeria included local forms of cutting and scraping of the vaginal walls in their definition of what constitutes FGM. The data bases for selecting the samples for the Nigeria DHS of 2003 and 2008 were relatively different, hence that made the distribution of the samples by region variant. (Yoder et al 2013). In the 2013 NDHS, the definition of FGM explicitly followed the WHO definition of FGM. In dissecting trends linked with FGM in Nigeria, it is unlikely that comparing prevalence of FGM using Nigeria DHS over years will give valid reasons for the trends over the years due to differences mentioned earlier (NDHS, 2013). 2.2 Variables The drivers of FGM from previous studies identified as mix of cultural, religious and social factors within families and communities. The variables of interest in this study are those related to these drivers of FGM and are classified as social, cultural, economic and geographical factors (WHO, 2014). For effective analyses some of the variables have been recoded. A full list of variables is attached in Appendix II. The outcome or dependent variable considered in this analyses is FGM; whether a woman had FGM or not. Other secondary outcomes of interest in this study is who performs FGM, perspectives and opinions on FGM were also examined (further categorized in table 2.1). The main independent variable in this study is Age at time of survey which serves as an indicator of the birth cohort of the participant. The exposure variables of interest in this study- residence, region- in order to analyse subpopulation trends. Other variables included in this study religion, ethnicity, education and wealth. The variable wealth index, measures a household relative economic status. This is calculated by a process which recodes and pools together data on household assets such as type of toilet, ownership of durable goods, etc. to produce a continuous standardized scale. This variables although not exhaustive have been selected because of their association with culture, socio-economic status which have an impact on the FGM practice (WHO, 2014). The relationship examined in this study will use the following variables Table 2.1 Definition and categorization of variables. *Types of FGM in table above (a) type I and II; flesh removed from genital area (b) type IV; genital area nicked no flesh removed (c); type III genital area closed. WHO classification for FGM (WHO, 2014). **All major ethnic groups in Nigeria and FGM practicing groups of significance from NDHS 2013 survey. 2.2 Data Analysis 2.2. 1 Conceptual Framework for analysing trends linked with FGM in Nigeria (WHO, 2014; NDHS Reports, 2013). The framework for analysis of trends linked with FGM will take in to cognizance sociodemographic factors that can confound or mediate the practice of FGM in Nigeria. This factors are shown below: Figure 2.1 above showing conceptual framework for analysis of FGM trends. 2.4 Data Analysis All analyses in this study were computed using SPSS v.22. The Data was weighted and complex sampling procedures used to minimise errors from sampling techniques used in NDHS 2013, thus ensuring results are valid (IBM 2015). The sampling weight was used for all analysis. A major part of the analyses involved handling of data using syntax files, a programme of orders which automatically computes analysis and can be saved. Some programmes used for the analyses can be found in Appendix III. The following statistical analysis were carried out to achieve the aim and objectives of this study: 2.4.1 Descriptive Analysis The analysis examined the following areas: General distribution of background characteristics of women age 15-49: frequency of background characteristics General Distribution of FGM related perspectives and opinions- frequencies of perspectives and opinions in the following: Ever heard of FGM Age women had FGM Prevalence of FGM including types Who performed FGM Number of daughters with FGM Beliefs on FGM required by religion Views on if FGM practice should continue or stop. Trends of FGM prevalence including types of FGM: percentage of women with FGM and its relationship by background characteristics, percentage of types of FGM and its relationship by background characteristics. Trends of perspectives and opinions on FGM by background characteristics: as listed above from b i, ii, iv, v, vi and vii. Trends of beliefs on FGM required by religion: percentage of women with FGM by beliefs on FGM required by religion Trends on opinions of FGM practice should stop or continue: percentage of women with FGM opinion on practice should stop or continue Trends of perspectives and opinions on FGM by age. Besides percentages and confidence intervals, chi-square test for trends are computed to ascertain the statistical significance of these associations. 2.4.2 Logistic regression analysis The variables on women background characteristics and perspectives of FGM were fitted into regression models in order to determine the extent they predict the outcome i.e. having FGM (b) to ascertain if the practice is declining or increasing by birth cohorts. This form of analysis involves computing bivariate and multivariate analyses using the main outcome FGM as the dependent variable and the previous variables (i.e. background characteristics) as the independent variables. In the bivariate analysis all independent variables except region were fitted into the model to estimate the crude trends in having FGM. Region was exempted to minimise confounding. A multivariate analysis involved fitting the same variables into the model controlling for age, education, ethnicity, economic status (wealth), urban-rural residence, and religion. The aim is to ascertain the relative importance of each variable as a predictor of having FGM. The reference categories for each variable fitted into the regression model are: age (15-19) education (no education), ethnic group (others), Residence (rural), religion (Islam), wealth index (richest).