Monday, June 3, 2019
Cultural determinants of Japan and United States
Cultural determinants of japan and f altogether in StatesThe purpose of this report is to explore the heathen determinants of both japan and United States. The report elucidates the differences between the two countries in terms of draws styles as influenced by their respective different elegantizations. The reason in selecting Japan as one of the research countries is because of its deep rooted substantial cultural beliefs and group centered style in a business perspective. It is comfortably known to the introduction that Japan is a closed economy but at the like time, extremely competitive. On the other(a) hand, United States make a good contrast in terms of its open enculturation and singleistic style of doing business. Despite the differences, both ar amongst the approximately competitive and successful nations in the world. The compromising Japanese and foeal Ameri basins do make this research journey an exciting and enkindleing one.Different cultures exist in th e world and their impact on leaders styles in their respective countries is significant. As defined by Luthans and Doh (2009, p96), Culture is the acquired knowledge that throng use to interpret experience and generate tender behaviour. And culture is gained through transmissions between individuals in forms of symbols, rituals, langu times, stories told and etc. It will be interesting to find stunned that the countries cultures do in fact influence their leadership styles to quite a dandy extent.In this report, two entirely different cultures Japan and United States will be explored in depth to provide a better to a lower placestanding of their background. The seven determinants of culture in these two countries will be individu in ally discussed as well. leaders styles in these two countries will alike be examined to establish a consanguinity with their respective cultures. In the later part of the report, an analysis on the cultural and leadership differences between Japa n and United States will give the readers a fade outline of the contrasts which exist currently.2. Overview of Theories2.1 Hofstedes Cultural DimensionsGeert Hofstede developed five dimensions of national culture. He had specifically examined the role of national culture in work related values and information system design (Hofstede, 1980). National culture can be defined as a presentation of relatively uniform and enduring values, beliefs, customs, practices and traditions that argon sh bed by a coun tense ups members, learned by pertly members and transmitted from one to the next (Huczynski and Buchanan, 2001).According to Hofstede (1984), culture is a kind of mental programming that lies between human nature on one side and personality on the other. Through the completion of his depicted object in 1980, it was found that the differences between cultures can be on a lower floorstood by the following four distinctive dimensionsPower DistanceIndividualism Vs Collectivism unbe lief Avoidancemaleness Vs womanhoodPower DistanceIt is the extent to which people expect and accept unequal antecedent distribution. These people are usually the ones with little power and control. Countries can be referred to as either having High power distance or Low power distance. The former has a tall and centralised structure, instructions and orders (from superiors) are obeyed without queries or rather, heedlessly. The latter, on the other hand, has a flat and decentralised structure. Superiors give lots of respect and trust to subordinates.Individualism vs. CollectivismIn an individualistic culture, people look after themselves and are more self-centred. The ties between people are not strong as each person is concentrate on their own coatings. This type of culture is mostly found in western countries.In a collectivist culture, great emphasis is placed on groups. It is more of a We culture instead of I. This type of culture can be described as harmonious and there is al most zero confrontation in times of conflict. As opposed to the individualistic culture, collectivist is more common in Asian countries.Uncertainty AvoidanceIt is the preference of a nightspot for unambiguous and attempt free situations. In a racy suspense avoidance country, there are more regulations and policies to adhere to and they tend to reduce risk to the minimum. Whereas in a low uncertainty avoidance country, people are tend to push boundaries and are more daring to get a line risks.Masculinity vs. FemininityIn simple terms, when a societys most important social values are associated with bills and success, it is said to be risquely masculine. It is bluely stressful to be working in such environments. Feminine societies, in contrast, debate in quality of life and helping others over anything else.2.2 Leadership in the International scopeLeadership is the process of influencing people to direct their efforts toward achievement of organization goals. A good leader takes ownership over projects, while simultaneously empowering everyone in his or her team to contribute according to their key strengths. They are accountable for any mistakes made, but ensure each is a learning experience for everyone, and capable of bill of exchange their own intuitive conclusions on the progress or outcome of a project, or foresee any roadblocks which may a sneak. Initiative is another key leadership trait. Successful leaders jump to their feet and run the extra mile to exceed expectations.They are two comparative areas provide a foundation for understanding leadership in the international1) the philosophical grounding of how leaders view their subordinates and2) leadership approaches as reflected through use of autocratic-participativecharacteristics and behaviours of leaders.Douglas McGregor, an American social psychologist, proposed his famous X-Y theory in his 1960 book The Human Side Of Enterprise. The specific philosophical assumptions of supposition X l eaders are humans inherently dislike working and will try to avoid it if they can. Because people dislike work they throw away to be coerced or controlled by management and threatened so they work hard enough. Average employees motivation to be directed and dont like responsibility. Average humans are clear and unambiguous and need security at work. Theory X leaders contributing(prenominal) to large scale efficient operations and apply to mass manufacturing Production Workers. This classify as Authoritarian, a hard management style.The specific philosophical assumptions of Theory Y leaders described people view work as being as natural as play and rest. Humans expend the same amount of physical and mental effort in their work as in their private lives. Provided people are motivated, they will be self-directing to the aims of the organization. Control and penalty are not the only mechanisms to make people work. Job satisfaction is the key to engaging employees and ensuring their lading. People learn to accept and seek responsibility. Average humans, under the proper conditions, will not only accept but even naturally seek responsibility. People are imaginative and creative. Their ingenuity should be apply to solve problems at work. This apply to professional services workers for participative complex problem solving. This classify as Participative, a soft management style.McGregor sees Theory Y as the preferable model and management method, however he felt Theory Y was difficult to use in large-scale operations.In 1981, William Ouchi came up with a variant that combined American and Japanese management practices together to form Theory Z, Theory Z essentially advocates a combination of all thats scoop out about theory Y and modern Japanese management, which places a large amount of freedom and trust with workers, and assumes that workers have a strong loyalty and interest in team-working and the organisation.Authoritarian Leadership (Autocratic) leaders provide clear expectations for what are need to be done, when it should be done, and how it should be done. There is likewise a clear division between the leaders and the followers. Some of the appropriate conditions are to be use when you have all the information to solve the problem, you are short on time, and your employees are well motivated.Participative Leadership (Democratic) leaders offer guidance to group members, but they also participate in the group and allow input from other group members. Participative leaders encourage group members to participate, but retain the final say over the decision-making process. Group members feel engaged in the process and are more motivated and creative.Delegative (Laissez-Faire) leaders offer little or no guidance to group members and leave decision-making up to group members. While this style can be effective in situations where group members are spicyly qualified in an area of expertise, it often leads to poorly defined roles and a lack of motivation.3. Overview of JapanJapan is an industrialised, and one of the most efficient countries in Asia, in terms of its economy and trades. receivable to the limitation of natural resources, Japan has turned to international trades for its unending supplies. The people of Japan are well educated and worldly known as extremely well mannered. Japan has strived to achieve and withstand very high health standards surpassing many other countries in the world, with its life expectancy rate exceeding that of the United States. (US Department of State, 2010)3.1 Determinants of Japanese CultureThe ancient Japanese culture has cast a massive impression on many people over centuries for being one of the most homogeneous countries in the world. Traditional, indirect, longevity based, collectivist, are both(prenominal) of the various terms associated with the Japanese. Their national culture is so strongly rooted that till this day, it is one of the very few countries in the wor ld which operates in a total different and unique way with traditional customs and feudalistic values, and still clinging firm to them. It surely has left many people wondering and pondering, having in mind that globalisation and internationalisation is so common these days. The below are some determinants of the Japanese culture which is worth to understand.Existing feudal ValuesFounded in 600 B.C and having its roots in Buddhism and Confucianism, the Japanese believes in tall hierarchal structures with strong importance placed on seniority, respect, loyalty and family. One of the feudal values is the unequal treatment of women. Women are regarded as low status in the highly masculine society of Japan. However, there are researches which shows that there has been some change to that, women are slowly paving their way up and even successful in their careers. (Bucknall, 2005)Interesting to know from Bucknalls (2005, p16) study is that the Japanese culture has a strong central core which sees things as being either right or all wrong, nothing in between. To the Japanese, losing is unacceptable and disgraceful because losing is just totally wrong. Hence, since the ancient Japan, they have regarded themselves as being a highly superior cast of people who just cannot lose to anyone, to Conquer is what they aim to achieve. (Recall macrocosm subject of war II)Another ancient value of the Japanese is that the seniors (in terms of age), are treated with reverence. The young people could only patiently wait for their turns for promotions. No way could they rise fast in an organisation even though they are out-performing or outstanding.ReligionAccording to Lee and Trim (2008), the Japanese adopted Buddhism and then interconnected it with Shintoism. It led to the ability of the rulers of Japan to develop regimen ceremonies in accordance with Shinto rituals. (Osumi, 1992) Buddhism teachings emphasise on doing the right actions and making right decisions. It also in volves one-third elements mental culture, wisdom and morality. (Lee and Trim, 1999)Besides the above, the Japanese have also been deeply influenced by Confucian thought. (Mei, 1967) Confucianism focuses on 4 chief(prenominal) elements benevolence, wisdom, righteousness and decorum.It is important for foreigners to ancestry that religion in Japan has played a crucial part in shaping their national identity. Buddhism and Shintoism intertwined, evolving their central government system. Hence, understanding religions of Japan would be highly recommended and should not be regarded lightly.Social StructureA study by Levy, (1992) showed that there are six social classes which can be stately in modern Japan. They are namelyThe Imperial FamilyConsists of the Emperor and his relatives (Sacred objects mentioned by Levy, 1992, p3), unlike the King and royal family in England, the Japanese Emperor holds a emblematical position in Japans social system and extremely significant.NobilityConsis ts of descendents of the Kuge, Samurais, Dukes and counts. (Nobilities in ancient Japan). Highly respected group in Japan.Upper midsection yearConsists of people who are not necessarily descendents of any nobility, but have high status in modern Japan. i.e Directors of large corporations, high ranking civil servants, etc.Lower Middle ClassThey are the normal working class people in modern Japan. Most of the people fall under this category.Industrial ProletariatThey are the blue collared workers.PeasantsThe rest of the population with lower than bonnie income.Political PhilosophyThere are seven political parties in Japan, namely Democratic Party of Japan (DPJ), the Social Democratic Party (SDP), the Peoples New Party (PNP), the Liberal Democratic Party (LDP), the New Clean politics Party (Komeito), the Japan Communist Party (JCP), and Your Party (YP). Japan is a constitutional monarchy with a parliamentary government (US Department of State, 2010).EconomyJapan is the spot larges t free- marketplace economy in the world following United States. (US Department of State, 2010) It has a highly competitive and efficient economy with few natural resources. The wages in Japan are the highest in the world (EconomyWatch, 2010), but fact that the living conditions/standards are extremely high has to be considered as well.LanguageAlmost all Japanese people converse and use Japanese as a business language. Even though they know English, they would be too shy to deliver in that. Silence would be the answers in the case of dealing with foreigners. It may seem strange to many foreigners, but this is the typical behaviour of many Japanese people. Very restricted use of English (despite being an international language) would be seen in most business meetings, limited to simply Good mornings and Good Byes. They do not show willingness to converse to foreigners in another language other than Japanese, perhaps due to their extreme shyness.EducationAs mentioned earlier, Japane se are a group of homogeneous people. As such, their fosterage system is highly uniformed. Hence, it can be perceived that almost all Japanese share the same ideas and beliefs. In Japan, all children are taught the same things in school, freedom to customise the curriculum is near impossible as the Ministry of Education in Japan closely supervises the educational activity system.The Japanese government places significant importance in the education system. The Ministry of Education, Culture, Sports, Science and Technology in Japan introduced five policies in January 2002 to improve the quality of education system. One of which is to increase the number of teaching personnel so as to achieve smaller teaching groups for more focus on each student.3.2 Leadership style and relationship to Culture in JapanJapanese leadership style is unique and differs from the convention X-Y theory proposed by Douglas McGregor. In 1981, William Ouchi came up with a variant theory Z which is essentiall y a combination of Theory Y and Japanese management.Buddhism has been around since Japan feudal era, practices by samurais and bushi (warrior) as pane Buddhism. When the samurai class unified the country under the leadership of shogun Tokugawa Leyasu in the Edo period (1600-1868), the sects encouraged values of hard work and patience according to their Buddhism teachings.Today, Buddhism is the most popular religion in Japan with some 85% of the population professing the faith.This forms the hardworking culture of Japanese and shapes the foundations of their leadership behaviour.Most Japanese managers believe that their employees are hard-working and are self-motivated by teamwork, that they want to share responsibility for attaining group goals and therefore seek participation in management process.Due to the participative approach of employees, Japanese managers use a blend of both task-centered and people-centered approach to lead subordinates. Both leaders and subordinates are m otivated by a powerful sense of commitment to be a part of a greater whole. This is contributed by the social structure and educational system of Japan.The social structure hierarchy of Japan which live of the Royal family down to the peasants and their strong sense of loyalty due to their Shinto teachings resulted in the Japanese believe that they are part of a greater whole, in country context Japan as a whole.Japan has one of the most successful and ren have education system. In recent years, there is a rise in higher education of Japanese in both private and government sector. Thorough its education system, it has reach attain a 99% literacy population. It has the highest literacy rates in Asia.MostUnder theory Z leaders, Japanese employees seek out responsibility and strive for opportunities to advance in organisations. They work towards the goal to be in the upper middle class of their social structure.Japanese leaders believe that the employees are self-satisfied when they c ontribute to organisational success through teamwork. In return for their organisations long-term commitment to providing job security (often for life), workers develop strong bonds of loyalty towards their employer.Communication FlowsAs theory ZSeniority LeadershipDue to the Japanese Feudal value, Japanese leaders are mostly base on their seniority. Evaluation of work and promotion is very slow and promotions are not base on individual performance. Seniority and age are much more important factors in Japan.Because of their emphasis on seniority, some of the major organisations in Japan are still family owned. They are managed and passed down to the Head of the family, usually the Male eldest of the descendants instead of the most capable of the family.The concept of family owned business may not work out on many other countries with different culture but miraculously organisations that are family owned showed great performance results.It is recognized in Japan to decide the heir o f the business base on seniority and it is right that all others of the family must obey all instruction that the head has pass down to them. Any subjugation towards the family head will be deemed as wrong and will not be recognised by the Japanese society. This is also due to the Japanese National Religion of Shinto. They are loyal to their familiar way of life and places, therefore able to maintain their practice.Guideline Leadership style should relate to culture determinants in 3.1. To show how the culture had influenced the kind of leadership style in Japan3.3 Hofstedes Cultural Dimensions in the Japanese contextPower DistanceJapan has a score of 54 on power-distance index (PDI) and a ranking of 44 out of 69 countries (Refer to Appendix 1). Japan is considered as a high power distance although the score is slightly below the world average of 55. Having a high power distance index, this will influence the leadership style of Japan. According to Hofstede, G. et al (2010), in hig h power distance circumstances subordinate acknowledges the existence of inequity. Thus, hierarchical system was the result of it. With a centralized and tall structure, the power is not evenly distributed and mainly control by the people from the top management (mostly seniors).Hofstede, G. et al (2010) suggested that it is essential for management to identify the strength of local culture and make use of it to complete certain tasks. Japanese leader would delegate tasks which require subordinates specify in order to get the work done in an orderly manner. Tasks would be completed with less conflict and disputes as subordinates would normally do what they are instructed to do. However, this would result in no or minimal initiative by the Japanese subordinates at work.Individualism Vs CollectivismJapan has a score of 46 on Individualism Index (IDV) and a ranking of 31-33 out of 69 countries (Refer to Appendix 1). The Individualism score for Japan is slightly above the world average of 43. However, Japan belongs to the group of collectivism. This is because Japan has the tendency to handle stuffs based on the relationship and believe that they have responsibility to one another. Hofstede, G. et al (2010, p120) stated that misfortunate performance of an employee in this relationship is no reason for dismissal one does not dismiss ones child. Therefore, Japanese leaders would first establish a relationship and some form of trust instead of demanding work to be done.Hofstede, G. et al (2010) stated that collectivist individual has a one of the culture norm with strong concept of face where one should not embarrass another. Thus, Japanese leaders would need to opt for a correct method to disseminate the negative newsworthiness instead of criticise and give negative feedback openly. Furthermore, under collectivist society, collectivist individual tends to perform the best in group and badly on individual basis. Therefore, Japanese leaders would tend to allocate m ore group works to their subordinates. However, when a group of employees completed their work, rewards should be given to the group as a whole and not individual.Uncertainty AvoidanceJapan has a score of 92 on Uncertainty Avoidance Index (UAI) and a ranking of 10-11 out of 69 countries (Refer to Appendix 1). Japan has a considerably high Uncertainty Avoidance Index. According to Hofstede, G. et al (2010, p213), Britain has produced more noble Prize winners than Japan, but Japan has put more new products on the world market. Japanese prefer to develop ideas which are established rather than to move ahead to supply new ideas. Furthermore, they have a systematic way to get things done which is good as this lead to actual products being produced.According to Luthan and Doh (2009), high uncertainty avoidance also implies that subordinates are less ambitious. They have low risk appetite and because of this there is an emotional need to create rules. However, not all the rules work. There fore, leader would have to find ways to lead and motivate their subordinates to achieve excellent result.Masculinity Vs FemininityJapan has a score of 95 on Masculinity Index (MAS) and a ranking of 2 out of 69 countries (Refer to Appendix 1). Japan has the second highest Masculinity Index. Therefore, Japan emphasises the importance of having the main values which are associated with money and success. According to Hofstede, G. et al (2010), work goals such as earnings, recognition, advancement and challenge are deemed to play an important role.After identifying Japanese having a high masculine culture and background of what they want to achieve, leaders can based on the criteria and lead the team effectively. The main items that Japanese are seeking for is money and success. Therefore, leaders should provide opportunities and encourage high performance from their Japanese subordinates in order for them to achieve their goals. Leaders should also note that incentives and rewards are based on equity and not equality.4. Overview of ground forcesThe United States of America, one of the worlds largest developed countries located between the North Atlantic Ocean and North Pacific Ocean. USA is highly abundant with natural resources, providing the world with its largest coal reserves. Apart from the lands and resources, USA is also considered having the worlds strongest and leading technological economy.Being one of the developed countries, USA is currently confront environmental issues like air, land and sea pollution cause by factories, mines and other industrial developments (The World Factbook, 2010).4.1 Determinants of US CultureUSA, the largest economy, deals massive trades among the rest of the world. examine the culture norms and values of would be important to businessman and entrepreneur that are boarding the shore of the US economy. American possess a strong believe in the concept of equality. Each individual should have equal rights, equal employment o pportunity and equal social obligation no matter which social or gender the individual belongs to.Individualism, direct, high uncertainties are some values that are tagged to American by numerous studies. Somehow these values have its roots related to the culture of the country.ReligionAlthough USA has a wide diversity of ethnics namely the North American, South American, Alaska native, Hawaiian native, Asian and others races Christianity still stay as their largest form of religious belief.Among the Christian, Protestant (including Baptist, Lutheran, Methodist, and Presbyterian) outnumber the Roman Catholic with 51.3% of the total population and the later 23.9%. Followed by Jewish, Islamic, Muslim and others reported by World Factbook (2010).Social StructureIn USA, most American would believe that there is equal opportunity and economic mobility and social classes does not exist. Moreover, Dennis Gilbert (1998) did defined USA social structure into 6 different classesCapitalist C lass American upper classThese are the minute top notch individual that has high influence in the economy of USA, example Warren Buffett and Bill Gates.Upper Middle ClassThese are highly educated professional that has a high one-year household income, example lawfulnessyers, professor, and dentist.Middle ClassThese are college graduates that are employed for white collar position in an organization, examples managerial position.Lower Middle ClassThese usually consist of blue collar workers or those performing clerical position.Lower ClassThese refer to the working individual that draws minimal annual household income, example farmers.Under ClassThese refer to individual that are unemployed.Political PhilosophyA national government with 50 states government, USA is considered as a federal republic country. Democrats and Republicans are 2 major parties dominating the political systems of USA. The government can be divided into three different branches.The government is headed by th e Executive branch which comprises of the president and its appointed cabinet. Each state has a different government constitution, the Legislative branch consist of Senate from each state and its House of Representatives. Each state have two Senates elect by the citizen of the state. Senates will need to be re-elect after six years of servicelastly the Judiciary branch is headed by the US Supreme Court. This is the highest court that reviews and maintains the interpretative of the whole nations constitution (USA Country Brief, 2006).EconomyUSA has the largest and most important market in the world (EconomyWatch (2010). Even though it is the largest economy, government have much regulation protecting certain home-grown sectors. Two thirds of US economy is highly goaded by its own consumer and therefore US economy can also be regard as Consumer Economy.According to World FactBook (2010), USA GDP arise to about 14 trillion in end of 2009. It is about 3 times as higher than the next la rgest economy, which is Japan. Despite of that, USA have also top the chart for its private and public debts owned. This could be possibly due to the economic depression in 2008 where there is an acute rose of oil prices lay the country in a state of inflation with high unemployment rate.In 2009, USA government borrowed billions to purchases equity from banks and Industrial Corporation, in order to perform extra injection to the economy for jobs creation and stabilizing the global economic downturn.LanguageThere is actually no official language stated by Law in USA, English and Spanish are 2 most common languages. In addition, English is the language use in legislation and a main form of business communication. Hawaiian is the official state language for Hawaii (Grimes, 2000).Communication style of an American can sometimes be regarded as hearty forward and aggressive. Going around the bush in meetings or discussion is considered time wasting. American has its own style of name f ormat which is different from Asian, they would sell First break (given name) followed by Last Name (family name) as in Julia Roberts where Roberts is the family name and Julia is the given name. Whereas for Asian, we would address Last Name (family name) followed by First Name (given name).Politeness is highly valued in USA. When meeting someone for the first time, it is always polite to address them with a salutation of Mr, Miss, Madam or Dr. revel and Thank You are two most common words heard in a conversation with American.EducationSlight differences can be espy in the education system in different states but generally they are still common. For most children in USA, education starts at an earlier age of 5 and graduated from high school at the age of 17.Parents can choose to send their kids to public schools which are funded by public tax these would be the common choice for most US citizen. In another hand, if the parents thinks that the public education systems does not su it their kids, they can still send them to private schools owned by churches, individuals and private groups (WorldWidelearn, 2010)4.2 Leadership style and relationship to Culture in United StatesGuideline Leadership style should relate to culture determinants in 4.1. To show how the culture had influenced the kind of leadership style in United StatesThe U.S. is one of the most religious of all the large nations of the world. Gallup International reports that 57 percent of American citizens regularly attend religious services. Politicians frequently discuss their religion when campaigning, and many churches and religious figures are highly politically active.Most American religious take concrete form as congregational voluntary associations. They provide their members with multiple and continuous opportunities to observe, learn and practice the skills of community life and leadership.By doing so, religious members are exposed to have chance to acquire and practice a series of useful capacities and skills. These include group decision making, raising and budgeting funds, leading discussion, mobilization consens
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